Profundizando en el debate conceptual sobre sportswashing: narrativas institucionales de proyección reputacional de Ruanda y la República Democrática del Congo en redes sociales

Xavier Ginesta; Diego Berraquero-Rodríguez; Francisco J. Cristòfol; Jordi de San Eugenio-Vela

doi:10.4185/rlcs-2027-2737

Authors

Xavier Ginesta Universitat de Vic - Universitat Central de Catalunya https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2433-6209
Diego Berraquero-Rodríguez Escuela Universitaria de Osuna https://orcid.org/0009-0007-4238-0098
Francisco J. Cristòfol Universidad Internacional De La Rioja https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0967-3514
Jordi de San Eugenio-Vela Universitat de Vic - Universitat Central de Catalunya https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3390-8819

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.4185/rlcs-2027-2737

Keywords:

sportswashing, public diplomacy, sport place branding, soft power, place branding, digital communication

Abstract

Introduction: In recent decades, sport has become a strategic instrument within international politics, used by states to project national image, strengthen global reputation and enhance territorial positioning. At the same time, the concept of sportswashing has gained prominence in both academic and media debates to describe the use of sport as a reputational legitimization strategy in the face of political or social criticism. However, its widespread use has generated conceptual ambiguity and confusion with other sport-related strategies such as sport diplomacy and sport place branding. Methodology: This study adopts a quantitative approach based on digital content analysis of social media, examining 684 posts published in 2025 by institutional accounts related to the territorial promotion strategies of Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Data were collected using the social media analytics tool Fanpage Karma and analyzed through three complementary dimensions: communication activity, digital engagement performance and lexical-discursive narrative analysis. Results: The findings reveal a clear asymmetry in the communication strategies of both countries. Rwanda displays a highly centralized strategy around the Visit Rwanda brand, where sport functions as a key instrument for international visibility and high levels of digital engagement. In contrast, the Democratic Republic of Congo presents a more fragmented communication strategy focused primarily on cultural and tourism promotion. Discussion: The results confirm the usefulness of the proposed political triangle of sport framework for interpreting these strategies, highlighting the predominance of sport place branding over sport diplomacy and sport for development narratives. Furthermore, the study argues that sportswashing can be understood as a critical interpretative outcome that may emerge across these strategies. Conclusions: The research contributes to clarifying the conceptual debate by proposing an integrative analytical framework that distinguishes legitimate territorial branding strategies from their potential reinterpretation as sportswashing in contexts of reputational controversy.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biographies

Xavier Ginesta, Universitat de Vic - Universitat Central de Catalunya

Tenured University Lecturer in the Department of Communication Sciences at the University of Vic-Central University of Catalonia. Accredited as a Full Professor (ANECA). Ph.D. in Communication and Journalism from the Autonomous University of Barcelona. His research interests focus on Communication, Sports, and Politics, and their interrelationships. He is a co-founder of the SPRING research network, the Sport and Politics Research International Network Group.

Diego Berraquero-Rodríguez, Escuela Universitaria de Osuna

Ph.D. Associate Professor accredited by ANECA. His research focuses on strategic communication and the impact of social media on organizations, cultural institutions, and sports organizations. He has developed various lines of research related to corporate communication, marketing applied to popular religiosity, and the analysis of regional brands.

Francisco J. Cristòfol, Universidad Internacional De La Rioja

Tenured University Lecturer. He holds a Ph.D. in Journalism and is pursuing a Ph.D. in Economics and Business at the University of Málaga. He holds an Official Master’s Degree in Journalism (CEU) and an Official Master’s Degree in Teaching (UMA), in addition to the GESCO Master’s Degree from ESIC and the European Advanced Program in Digital Marketing (ICEMD). His research focuses on marketing and communication related to religious brotherhoods, a field he addresses in his second doctoral thesis. He also conducts research on regional brands, journalism, and political communication. He is currently a professor at the International University of La Rioja (UNIR) and has served on the faculty of various academic institutions, including Loyola University Andalusia, the European University, the Open University of Catalonia, the Autonomous University of Bucaramanga (Colombia), and the University of the Sacred Heart (Puerto Rico).

Jordi de San Eugenio-Vela, Universitat de Vic - Universitat Central de Catalunya

Professor in the Department of Communication Sciences. His research interests focus on communication processes that take place at the local level, with a particular emphasis on tourism, landscape, and place branding. In connection with these topics, he has carried out numerous knowledge transfer projects for the private sector, in addition to publishing books, book chapters, and articles in international journals.

References

Amnistía Internacional. (13 de junio de 2025). NBA must review its partnership with Rwanda amid M23 atrocities in Democratic Republic of Congo. https://www.amnestyusa.org/press-releases/nba-must-review-its-partnership-with-rwanda-amid-m23-atrocities-in-democratic-republic-of-congo

Anholt, S. (2007). Competitive identity: The new brand management for nations, cities and regions. Palgrave Macmillan. https://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/13220/1/194.pdf

Anholt, S. (2011). Places: Identity, image and reputation. Palgrave Macmillan. https://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/69748/1/137.pdf

Brannagan, P. M. y Reiche, D. (2025). Saudi Arabia and the 2034 FIFA World Cup: context, strategy, critique. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 17(4), 705-715. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2025.2473319 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2025.2473319

Brannagan, P. M. y Rookwood, J. (2016). Sports mega-events, soft power and soft disempowerment: international supporters’ perspectives on Qatar’s acquisition of the 2022 FIFA World Cup finals. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 8(2), 173-188. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2016.1150868 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2016.1150868

Brannagan, P. M., Giulianotti, R. y Grix, J. (2025). Sport and Power: hard power, soft power and smart power. Leisure Studies, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2025.2472728 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2025.2472728

Buhmann, A. y Ingenhoff, D. (2015). The 4D model of the country image: An integrative approach from the perspective of communication management. International Communication Gazette, 77(1), 102-124. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048514556986 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048514556986

Chadwick, S. (2022). From utilitarianism and neoclassical sport management to a new geopolitical economy of sport. European Sport Management Quarterly, 22(5), 685-704. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2022.2032251 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2022.2032251

Coalter, F. (2013). Sport for Development: What Game Are We Playing? Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203861257

Cristòfol, F. J., Berraquero-Rodríguez, D., Zamarreño-Aramendia, G. y Alves, P. F. (2025). Innovación y competitividad en la marca territorial del Algarve: un análisis comparativo de su comunicación en redes sociales y contenido web. Tourism and Hospitality, 6(2), 88. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp6020088 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp6020088

Cull, N. J. (2008). Public diplomacy: Taxonomies and histories. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 616(1), 31-54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716207311952 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716207311952

Cvijikj, I. P. y Michahelles, F. (2013). Online engagement factors on Facebook brand pages. Social Network Analysis and Mining, 3(4), 843-861. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13278-013-0098-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13278-013-0098-8

Delaney, M. (2024). States of play: How sportswashing took over football. Seven Dials.

Dentice, G. (21 de noviembre de 2022). Deporte, cultura y grandes eventos: el sentido del poder blando. Política Exterior. https://www.politicaexterior.com/articulo/deporte-cultura-y-grandes-eventos-el-sentido-del-poder-blando/

Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43(4), 51-58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x

ESPN. (2025, 29 de septiembre). Los Angeles Rams, LA Clippers sign deals to promote Rwanda. https://www.espn.com/espn/story/_/id/46424485/los-angeles-rams-la-clippers-sign-deals-promote-rwanda

Fernández, M. L. y Villar, F. R. C. (2022). Rol de un equipo profesional de fútbol en el desarrollo de una marca ciudad: una revisión de la literatura. SciELO Preprints. https://doi.org/10.1590/SciELOPreprints.4987 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/SciELOPreprints.4987

Freedom House. (2025). Freedom in the World 2025: Rwanda. https://freedomhouse.org/country/rwanda/freedom-world/2025

Fruh, K., Archer, A. y Wojtowicz, J. (2022). Sportswashing: Complicity and corruption. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2022.2107697. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2022.2107697

Ginesta, X. (1 agosto 2025). Cómo entender el polémico acuerdo entre el Barça y la República Democrática del Congo. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/como-entender-el-polemico-acuerdo-entre-el-barca-y-la-republica-democratica-del-congo-262392 DOI: https://doi.org/10.64628/AAO.jus5r6wey

Ginesta, X. y San Eugenio, J. (2013). The use of football as a country branding strategy. Case Study: Qatar and the Catalan Sports Press. Communication & Sport, 2(3), 225-241. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167479513486886 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2167479513486886

Giulianotti, R. (2011). The Sport, Development and Peace Sector: A Model of Four Social Policy Domains. Journal of Social Policy, 40(4), 757-776. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279410000930 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279410000930

Giulianotti, R. y Armstrong, G. (2013). The Sport for Development and Peace Sector: A Critical Sociological Analysis. En N. Schulenkorf y D. Adair (Eds.), Global Sport-for-Development. Global Culture and Sport Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137289636_2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137289636_2

Grix, J. (2013). Sport politics and the Olympics. Political Studies Review, 11(1), 15-25. https://doi.org/10.1111/1478-9302.12001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1478-9302.12001

Grix, J. y Brannagan, P. M. (2024). Sports Mega-Events as Foreign Policy: Sport diplomacy, “Soft Power,” and “Sportswashing”. American Behavioral Scientist. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027642241262042 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00027642241262042

Grix, J., Dinsmore, A. y Brannagan, P. M. (2023). Unpacking the politics of ‘sportswashing’: It takes two to tango. Politics, 45(3), 377-398. https://doi.org/10.1177/02633957231207387 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/02633957231207387

Hassen, I. y Giovanardi, M. (2018). The difference of “being diverse”: City branding and multiculturalism in the “Leicester Model”. Cities, 80, 45-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.06.019 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.06.019

Human Rights Watch. (2025). World Report 2025: Democratic Republic of Congo. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/democratic-republic-congo

Jacobsen, T. T. (2026). Understanding the interplay of sportswashing and soft power in the case of the Beijing 2022 Winter Olympics. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2026.2618789 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2026.2618789

Kavaratzis, M. y Ashworth, G. J. (2006). City branding: An effective assertion of identity or a transitory marketing trick? Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 2(3), 183-194. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.pb.5990056 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.pb.5990056

Kazakov, V. (2025). The normative trap of “sportswashing”: Addressing the missing link between sports politics, journalism and media research. Sport in Society. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17430437.2025.2585861#abstract DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2025.2585861

Krippendorff, K. (2018). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology (4ª Ed.). Sage. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071878781

Moragas, M. de y Botella, M. (Eds.). (1995). The keys to success: The social, sporting, economic and communications impact of Barcelona ’92. Centre d’Estudis Olímpics i de l’Esport, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.

Murray. S. y Pigman, G. A. (2014). Mapping the relationship between international sport and diplomacy. Sport in Society, 17(9), 1098-1118. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2013.856616 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2013.856616

Neuendorf, K. A. (2017). The content analysis guidebook (2ª Ed.). Sage. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071873045

Nye, J. S. (2004). Soft power: The means to success in world politics. PublicAffairs.

Pigman, G. A. (2010). Contemporary diplomacy. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Rein, I. y Shields, B. (2007). Place branding: Place branding sports: Strategies for differentiating emerging, transitional, negatively viewed and newly industrialised nations. Place Branding & Public Diplomacy 3, 73-85. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.pb.6000049 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.pb.6000049

Reuters. (2 de febrero de 2025a). DR Congo asks clubs to end Visit Rwanda sponsorship. https://www.reuters.com/sports/soccer/dr-congo-asks-clubs-end-visit-rwanda-sponsorship-2025-02-02/ .

Reuters. (3 de abril de 2025b). After tariffs, US dangles billions of dollars in Congo mineral investment. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/after-tariffs-us-dangles-billions-dollars-congo-mineral-investment-2025-04-03/

Richelieu, A. (2018). A sport-oriented place branding strategy for cities, regions and countries. Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal, 8(4), 354-374. https://doi.org/10.1108/SBM-02-2018-0010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/SBM-02-2018-0010

Satish, K., Ginesta Portet, X. y de San Eugenio Vela, J. (2024). Football and Nation Branding: A Case Study of Saudi Arabia’s Strategy for Global Football Recognition. AdComunica, (27), 27-52. https://doi.org/10.6035/adcomunica.7776 DOI: https://doi.org/10.6035/adcomunica.7776

Skey, M. (2022). Sportswashing: Media headline or analytic concept? International Review for the Sociology of Sport. https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902221136086 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902221136086

Svensson, P. G. (2017). Organizational hybridity: A conceptualization of how sport for development and peace organizations respond to divergent institutional demands. Sport Management Review, 20(5), 443-454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2017.03.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2017.03.004

Tafesse, W. y Wien, A. (2018). Using message strategy to drive consumer engagement on social media. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 35(3), 241-253. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-08-2016-1905 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-08-2016-1905

Xiang, Z., Du, Q., Ma, Y. y Fan, W. (2017). A comparative analysis of major online review platforms: Implications for social media analytics in hospitality and tourism. Tourism Management, 58, 51-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.10.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.10.001